By the nature of its functions, a bank is required to take meticulous care of the deposits of its clients, who have the right to expect high standards of integrity and performance from it.
Among its obligations in furtherance thereof is knowing the signatures of its clients. Depositors are not estopped from questioning wrongful withdrawals, even if they have failed to question those errors in the statements sent by the bank to them for verification.
The assailed Resolution denied all the parties’ Motions for Reconsideration.
Modifying the Decision of the Regional Trial Court (RTC), the CA apportioned the loss between BPI and CASA. The appellate court took into account CASA’s contributory negligence that resulted in the undetected forgery. It then ordered Leonardo T. Yabut to reimburse BPI half the total amount claimed; and CASA, the other half. It also disallowed attorney’s fees and moral and exemplary damages.
Hence, these Petitions.9
In GR No. 149454, Petitioner BPI submits the following issues for our consideration:
In GR No. 149507, Petitioner CASA submits the following issues:
These issues can be narrowed down to three. First, was there forgery under the Negotiable Instruments Law (NIL)? Second, were any of the parties negligent and therefore precluded from setting up forgery as a defense? Third, should moral and exemplary damages, attorney’s fees, and interest be awarded?
The Petition in GR No. 149454 has no merit, while that in GR No. 149507 is partly meritorious.
The counterfeiting of any writing, consisting in the signing of another’s name with intent to defraud, is forgery.16
In the present case, we hold that there was forgery of the drawer’s signature on the check.
Indeed, we respect and affirm the RTC’s factual findings, especially when affirmed by the CA, since these are supported by substantial evidence on record.25
The voluntary admission of Yabut did not violate his constitutional rights (1) on custodial investigation, and (2) against self-incrimination.
In the first place, he was not under custodial investigation.26 His Affidavit was executed in private and before private individuals.27 The mantle of protection under Section 12 of Article III of the 1987 Constitution28 covers only the period "from the time a person is taken into custody for investigation of his possible participation in the commission of a crime or from the time he is singled out as a suspect in the commission of a crime although not yet in custody."29
Therefore, to fall within the ambit of Section 12, quoted above, there must be an arrest or a deprivation of freedom, with "questions propounded on him by the police authorities for the purpose of eliciting admissions, confessions, or any information."30 The said constitutional provision does "not apply to spontaneous statements made in a voluntary manner"31 whereby an individual orally admits to authorship of a crime.32 "What the Constitution proscribes is the compulsory or coercive disclosure of incriminating facts."33
If in these government proceedings waiver is allowed, all the more is it so in private investigations. It is of no moment that no criminal case has yet been filed against Yabut. The filing thereof is entirely up to the appropriate authorities or to the private individuals upon whom damage has been caused. As we shall also explain later, it is not mandatory for CASA -- the plaintiff below -- to implead Yabut in the civil case before the lower court.
Yabut is not an accused here. Besides, his mere invocation of the aforesaid rights "does not automatically entitle him to the constitutional protection."45 When he freely and voluntarily executed46 his Affidavit, the State was not even involved. Such Affidavit may therefore be admitted without violating his constitutional rights while under custodial investigation and against self-incrimination.
The examination by the PNP, though inconclusive, was nevertheless clear, positive and convincing.
The drawer’s signatures on the microfilm copies were compared with the standard signature. PNP Document Examiner II Josefina de la Cruz testified on cross-examination that two different persons had written them.53 Although no conclusive report could be issued in the absence of the original checks,54 she affirmed that her findings were 90 percent conclusive.55 According to her, even if the microfilm copies were the only basis of comparison, the differences were evident.56 Besides, the RTC explained that although the Report was inconclusive, no conclusive report could have been given by the PNP, anyway, in the absence of the original checks.57 This explanation is valid; otherwise, no such report can ever be relied upon in court.
Even with respect to documentary evidence, the best evidence rule applies only when the contents of a document -- such as the drawer’s signature on a check -- is the subject of inquiry.58 As to whether the document has been actually executed, this rule does not apply; and testimonial as well as any other secondary evidence is admissible.59 Carina Lebron herself, the drawer’s authorized signatory, testified many times that she had never signed those checks. Her testimonial evidence is admissible; the checks have not been actually executed. The genuineness of her handwriting is proved, not only through the court’s comparison of the questioned handwritings and admittedly genuine specimens thereof,60 but above all by her.
The failure of CASA to produce the original checks neither gives rise to the presumption of suppression of evidence61 nor creates an unfavorable inference against it.62 Such failure merely authorizes the introduction of secondary evidence63 in the form of microfilm copies. Of no consequence is the fact that CASA did not present the signature card containing the signatures with which those on the checks were compared.64 Specimens of standard signatures are not limited to such a card. Considering that it was not produced in evidence, other documents that bear the drawer’s authentic signature may be resorted to.65 Besides, that card was in the possession of BPI -- the adverse party.
We have held that without the original document containing the allegedly forged signature, one cannot make a definitive comparison that would establish forgery;66 and that a comparison based on a mere reproduction of the document under controversy cannot produce reliable results.67 We have also said, however, that a judge cannot merely rely on a handwriting expert’s testimony,68 but should also exercise independent judgment in evaluating the authenticity of a signature under scrutiny.69 In the present case, both the RTC and the CA conducted independent examinations of the evidence presented and arrived at reasonable and similar conclusions. Not only did they admit secondary evidence; they also appositely considered testimonial and other documentary evidence in the form of the Affidavit.
The best evidence rule admits of exceptions and, as we have discussed earlier, the first of these has been met.70 The result of examining a questioned handwriting, even with the aid of experts and scientific instruments, may be inconclusive;71 but it is a non sequitur to say that such result is not clear, positive and convincing. The preponderance of evidence required in this case has been satisfied.72
Having established the forgery of the drawer’s signature, BPI -- the drawee -- erred in making payments by virtue thereof. The forged signatures are wholly inoperative, and CASA -- the drawer whose authorized signatures do not appear on the negotiable instruments -- cannot be held liable thereon. Neither is the latter precluded from setting up forgery as a real defense.
We have repeatedly emphasized that, since the banking business is impressed with public interest, of paramount importance thereto is the trust and confidence of the public in general. Consequently, the highest degree of diligence73 is expected,74 and high standards of integrity and performance are even required, of it.75 By the nature of its functions, a bank is "under obligation to treat the accounts of its depositors with meticulous care,76 always having in mind the fiduciary nature of their relationship."77
BPI contends that it has a signature verification procedure, in which checks are honored only when the signatures therein are verified to be the same with or similar to the specimen signatures on the signature cards. Nonetheless, it still failed to detect the eight instances of forgery. Its negligence consisted in the omission of that degree of diligence required78 of a bank. It cannot now feign ignorance, for very early on we have already ruled that a bank is "bound to know the signatures of its customers; and if it pays a forged check, it must be considered as making the payment out of its own funds, and cannot ordinarily charge the amount so paid to the account of the depositor whose name was forged."79 In fact, BPI was the same bank involved when we issued this ruling seventy years ago.
The monthly statements issued by BPI to its clients contain a notice worded as follows: "If no error is reported in ten (10) days, account will be correct."80 Such notice cannot be considered a waiver, even if CASA failed to report the error. Neither is it estopped from questioning the mistake after the lapse of the ten-day period.
Every right has subjects -- active and passive. While the active subject is entitled to demand its enforcement, the passive one is duty-bound to suffer such enforcement.92
On the one hand, BPI could not have been an active subject, because it could not have demanded from CASA a response to its notice. Besides, the notice was a measly request worded as follows: "Please examine x x x and report x x x."93 CASA, on the other hand, could not have been a passive subject, either, because it had no obligation to respond. It could -- as it did -- choose not to respond.
Estoppel precludes individuals from denying or asserting, by their own deed or representation, anything contrary to that established as the truth, in legal contemplation.94 Our rules on evidence even make a juris et de jure presumption95 that whenever one has, by one’s own act or omission, intentionally and deliberately led another to believe a particular thing to be true and to act upon that belief, one cannot -- in any litigation arising from such act or omission -- be permitted to falsify that supposed truth.96
In the instant case, CASA never made any deed or representation that misled BPI. The former’s omission, if any, may only be deemed an innocent mistake oblivious to the procedures and consequences of periodic audits. Since its conduct was due to such ignorance founded upon an innocent mistake, estoppel will not arise.97 A person who has no knowledge of or consent to a transaction may not be estopped by it.98 "Estoppel cannot be sustained by mere argument or doubtful inference x x x."99 CASA is not barred from questioning BPI’s error even after the lapse of the period given in the notice.
Proximate cause is determined by the facts of the case.106 "It is that cause which, in natural and continuous sequence, unbroken by any efficient intervening cause, produces the injury, and without which the result would not have occurred."107
Pursuant to its prime duty to ascertain well the genuineness of the signatures of its client-depositors on checks being encashed, BPI is "expected to use reasonable business prudence."108 In the performance of that obligation, it is bound by its internal banking rules and regulations that form part of the contract it enters into with its depositors.109
Unfortunately, it failed in that regard. First, Yabut was able to open a bank account in one of its branches without privity;110 that is, without the proper verification of his corresponding identification papers. Second, BPI was unable to discover early on not only this irregularity, but also the marked differences in the signatures on the checks and those on the signature card. Third, despite the examination procedures it conducted, the Central Verification Unit111 of the bank even passed off these evidently different signatures as genuine. Without exercising the required prudence on its part, BPI accepted and encashed the eight checks presented to it. As a result, it proximately contributed to the fraud and should be held primarily liable112 for the "negligence of its officers or agents when acting within the course and scope of their employment."113 It must bear the loss.
In this jurisdiction, the negligence of the party invoking forgery is recognized as an exception114 to the general rule that a forged signature is wholly inoperative.115 Contrary to BPI’s claim, however, we do not find CASA negligent in handling its financial affairs. CASA, we stress, is not precluded from setting up forgery as a real defense.
The major purpose of an independent audit is to investigate and determine objectively if the financial statements submitted for audit by a corporation have been prepared in accordance with the appropriate financial reporting practices116 of private entities. The relationship that arises therefrom is both legal and moral.117 It begins with the execution of the engagement letter118 that embodies the terms and conditions of the audit and ends with the fulfilled expectation of the auditor’s ethical119 and competent performance in all aspects of the audit.120
The financial statements are representations of the client; but it is the auditor who has the responsibility for the accuracy in the recording of data that underlies their preparation, their form of presentation, and the opinion121 expressed therein.122 The auditor does not assume the role of employee or of management in the client’s conduct of operations123 and is never under the control or supervision124 of the client.
Moreover, there was a time gap between the period covered by the bank statement and the date of its actual receipt. Lebron personally received the December 1990 bank statement only in January 1991134 -- when she was also informed of the forgery for the first time, after which she immediately requested a "stop payment order." She cannot be faulted for the late detection of the forged December check. After all, the bank account with BPI was not personal but corporate, and she could not be expected to monitor closely all its finances. A preschool teacher charged with molding the minds of the youth cannot be burdened with the intricacies or complexities of corporate existence.
There is also a cutoff period such that checks issued during a given month, but not presented for payment within that period, will not be reflected therein.135 An experienced auditor with intent to defraud can easily conceal any devious scheme from a client unwary of the accounting processes involved by manipulating the cash balances on record -- especially when bank transactions are numerous, large and frequent. CASA could only be blamed, if at all, for its unintelligent choice in the selection and appointment of an auditor -- a fault that is not tantamount to negligence.
Negligence is not presumed, but proven by whoever alleges it.136 Its mere existence "is not sufficient without proof that it, and no other cause,"137 has given rise to damages.138 In addition, this fault is common to, if not prevalent among, small and medium-sized business entities, thus leading the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC), through the Board of Accountancy (BOA), to require today not only accreditation for the practice of public accountancy,139 but also the registration of firms in the practice thereof. In fact, among the attachments now required upon registration are the code of good governance140 and a sworn statement on adequate and effective training.141
Clearly then, Yabut was able to perpetrate the wrongful act through no fault of CASA. If auditors may be held liable for breach of contract and negligence,146 with all the more reason may they be charged with the perpetration of fraud upon an unsuspecting client. CASA had the discretion to pursue BPI alone under the NIL, by reason of expediency or munificence or both. Money paid under a mistake may rightfully be recovered,147 and under such terms as the injured party may choose.
We deny CASA’s claim for moral damages.
Regrettably, in this case CASA was unable to identify the particular instance -- enumerated in the Civil Code -- upon which its claim for moral damages is predicated.156 Neither bad faith nor negligence so gross that it amounts to malice157 can be imputed to BPI. Bad faith, under the law, "does not simply connote bad judgment or negligence;158 it imports a dishonest purpose or some moral obliquity and conscious doing of a wrong, a breach of a known duty through some motive or interest or ill will that partakes of the nature of fraud."159
As a general rule, a corporation -- being an artificial person without feelings, emotions and senses, and having existence only in legal contemplation -- is not entitled to moral damages,160 because it cannot experience physical suffering and mental anguish.161 However, for breach of the fiduciary duty required of a bank, a corporate client may claim such damages when its good reputation is besmirched by such breach, and social humiliation results therefrom.162 CASA was unable to prove that BPI had debased the good reputation of,163 and consequently caused incalculable embarrassment to, the former. CASA’s mere allegation or supposition thereof, without any sufficient evidence on record,164 is not enough.
We also deny CASA’s claim for exemplary damages.
When the act or omission of the defendant has compelled the plaintiff to incur expenses to protect the latter’s interest,172 or where the court deems it just and equitable,173 attorney’s fees may be recovered. In the present case, BPI persistently denied the claim of CASA under the NIL to recredit the latter’s account for the value of the forged checks. This denial constrained CASA to incur expenses and exert effort for more than ten years in order to protect its corporate interest in its bank account. Besides, we have already cautioned BPI on a similar act of negligence it had committed seventy years ago, but it has remained unrelenting. Therefore, the Court deems it just and equitable to grant ten percent (10%)174 of the total value adjudged to CASA as attorney’s fees.
For the failure of BPI to pay CASA upon demand and for compelling the latter to resort to the courts to obtain payment, legal interest may be adjudicated at the discretion of the Court, the same to run from the filing175 of the Complaint.176 Since a court judgment is not a loan or a forbearance of recovery, the legal interest shall be at six percent (6%) per annum.177 "If the obligation consists in the payment of a sum of money, and the debtor incurs in delay, the indemnity for damages, there being no stipulation to the contrary, shall be the payment of x x x legal interest, which is six percent per annum."178 The actual base for its computation shall be "on the amount finally adjudged,"179 compounded180 annually to make up for the cost of money181 already lost to CASA.
Moreover, the failure of the CA to award interest does not prevent us from granting it upon damages awarded for breach of contract.182 Because BPI evidently breached its contract of deposit with CASA, we award interest in addition to the total amount adjudged. Under Section 196 of the NIL, any case not provided for shall be "governed by the provisions of existing legislation or, in default thereof, by the rules of the law merchant."183 Damages are not provided for in the NIL. Thus, we resort to the Code of Commerce and the Civil Code. Under Article 2 of the Code of Commerce, acts of commerce shall be governed by its provisions and, "in their absence, by the usages of commerce generally observed in each place; and in the absence of both rules, by those of the civil law."184 This law being silent, we look at Article 18 of the Civil Code, which states: "In matters which are governed by the Code of Commerce and special laws, their deficiency shall be supplied" by its provisions. A perusal of these three statutes unmistakably shows that the award of interest under our civil law is justified.
WHEREFORE, the Petition in GR No. 149454 is hereby DENIED, and that in GR No. 149507 PARTLY GRANTED. The assailed Decision of the Court of Appeals is AFFIRMED with modification: BPI is held liable for ₱547,115, the total value of the forged checks less the amount already recovered by CASA from Leonardo T. Yabut, plus interest at the legal rate of six percent (6%) per annum -- compounded annually, from the filing of the complaint until paid in full; and attorney’s fees of ten percent (10%) thereof, subject to reimbursement from Respondent Yabut for the entire amount, excepting attorney’s fees. Let a copy of this Decision be furnished the Board of Accountancy of the Professional Regulation Commission for such action as it may deem appropriate against Respondent Yabut. No costs.
SO ORDERED.
* On official leave.
** Working Chairman.
1 GR No. 149454 rollo, pp. 20-40; GR No. 149507 rollo, pp. 3-20.
2 Id., pp. 44-52 & 22-30. Penned by Justice Portia Aliño-Hormachuelos, with the concurrence of Justices Fermin A. Martin Jr. (Second Division chairman) and Mercedes Gozo-Dadole (member).
3 Id., pp. 54 & 32. Penned by Justice Portia Aliño-Hormachuelos, with the concurrence of Justices Ramon A. Barcelona (Special Former Second Division chairman) and Mercedes Gozo-Dadole (member).
4 Assailed CA Decision, pp. 8-9; GR No. 149454 rollo, pp. 51-52; GR No. 149507 rollo, pp. 29-30.
5 This is also referred to in the records as Casa Montessori Internationale or Casa Montessori International, Inc.
6 The amount was earlier stated in the CA Decision as ₱782,000.
7 The total amount of the encashed checks was earlier computed in the CA Decision to be ₱782,600.
8 Assailed CA Decision, pp. 2-4; GR No. 149454 rollo, pp. 45-47; GR No. 149507 rollo, pp. 23-25. Citations omitted.
9 These two cases were consolidated and deemed submitted for decision on July 25, 2002, upon the Court’s receipt of BPI’s Memorandum in GR No. 149454, which was signed by Atty. Justino M. Marquez III. CASA’s Memorandum, signed by Atty. Oscar F. Martinez, was filed on July 4, 2002; while Yabut’s Memorandum, signed by Atty. Leny L. Mauricio, was filed on June 25, 2002.
In GR No. 149507, a Manifestation (re: Memorandum) by Yabut, also signed by Atty. Mauricio, was filed on June 25, 2002. BPI’s Memorandum, also signed by Atty. Marquez, was filed on June 3, 2002; while CASA’s Memorandum, also signed by Atty. Martinez, was filed on April 19, 2002.
10 BPI’s Memorandum, p. 7; GR No. 149454 rollo, p. 140. Boldface and upper case characters copied verbatim.
11 CASA’s Memorandum, p. 6; GR No. 149507 rollo, p. 83.
12 Act No. 2031 took effect on June 2, 1911. Agbayani, Commentaries and Jurisprudence on the Commercial Laws of the Philippines, Vol I (1989 ed.), p. 191.
13 Campos and Lopez-Campos, Notes and Selected Cases on Negotiable Instruments Law (5th ed., 1994), pp. 268-269.
14 Gempesaw v. CA, 218 SCRA 682, 689, February 9, 1993.
15 Associated Bank v. CA, 322 Phil. 677, 695, January 31, 1996.
16 Agbayani, supra, p. 191.
17 Assailed CA Decision, p. 7; GR No. 149454 rollo, p. 50; GR No. 149507 rollo, p. 28.
18 RTC Decision, p. 4; GR No. 149454 rollo, p. 59.
19 Yabut’s Affidavit, pp. 1-2; GR No. 149454 records, pp. 323-324.
20 RTC Decision, p. 4; GR No. 149454 rollo, p. 59.
21 Assailed CA Decision, p. 8; id., p. 51; GR No. 149507 rollo, p. 29.
22 Questioned Document Report No. 291-91 dated November 25, 1991; GR No. 149454 records, p. 326.
23 Assailed CA Decision, p. 7; GR No. 149454 rollo, p. 50; GR No. 149507 rollo, p. 28. See also RTC Decision, p. 3; GR No. 149454 rollo, p. 58.
24 Questioned Document Report No. 029-91 dated January 28, 1991, issued upon the request of BPI Vice President Amante S. Bueno; GR No. 149454 records, p. 328.
25 Francisco v. CA, 377 Phil. 368, 378, November 29, 1999. See also Almeda v. CA, 336 Phil. 621, 629, March 13, 1997; Fuentes v. CA, 335 Phil. 1163, 1169, February 26, 1997; and People v. Magallano, 334 Phil. 276, 282, January 16, 1997.
26 Custodial investigation is defined as "any questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way." Sebastian Sr. v. Garchitorena, 343 SCRA 463, 470, October 18, 2000, per De Leon Jr., J. See also Navallo v. Sandiganbayan, 234 SCRA 175, 183-184, July 18, 1994; People v. Loveria, 187 SCRA 47, 61, July 2, 1990; and Miranda v. Arizona, 384 US 436, 444, 16 L. Ed. 2d 694, 706, June 13, 1966.
In the deliberations on the 1987 Constitution, Commissioner Felicitas Aquino summed up the right as extending to the period of "custodial interrogation, temporary detention and preliminary technical custody." Bernas, The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines: A Commentary, Vol. I (1st ed., 1987), p. 345; citing Record of the Constitutional Commission: Proceedings and Debates, Vol. I (1986), pp. 713-714, 716-717.
§12 of Article III of the Constitution provides for the rights available to a person facing custodial investigation. Cruz, Constitutional Law (1995 ed.), p. 292.
27 Yabut’s Affidavit, supra.
28 "x x x [A]mong the rights of a person under custodial investigation is the right to have competent and independent counsel preferably of his own choice and if the person cannot afford the services of counsel, that he must be provided with one." Marcelo v. Sandiganbayan, 361 Phil. 772, 788, January 26, 1999, per Mendoza, J.
See also People v. Porio, 376 SCRA 596, 609-610, February 13, 2002; People v. Suela, 373 SCRA 163, 182, January 15, 2002; People v. Tulin, 416 Phil. 365, 382-383, August 30, 2001; People v. Continente, 339 SCRA 1, 17-18, 20-21, 26, August 25, 2000; People v. Santocildes Jr., 378 Phil. 943, 949-950, December 21, 1999; People v. Bermas, 365 Phil. 581, 593-596, April 21, 1999; People v. Santos, 347 Phil. 943, 949-950, December 22, 1997; People v. Andal, 344 Phil. 889, 911-912, September 25, 1997; People v. Fabro, 342 Phil. 708, 772, 726, August 11, 1997; People v. Deniega, 251 SCRA 626, 638-639, December 29, 1995; and People v. Duero, 191 Phil. 679, 687-688, May 13, 1981.
29 People v. Felixminia, 379 SCRA 567, 575, March 20, 2002, per curiam. See also People v. Bariquit, 341 SCRA 600, 618, October 2, 2000; People v. Bravo, 376 Phil. 931, 940, November 22, 1999; People v. Andan, 336 Phil. 91, 102, March 3, 1997; and People v. Marra, 236 SCRA 565, 573, September 20, 1994.
These rights are available if a person is in custody, even if not yet a suspect; or if already the suspect, even if not yet in custody. Bernas, supra.
30 People v. Arondain, 418 Phil. 354, 367-368, September 27, 2001, per Ynares-Santiago, J. See also People v. Amestuzo, 413 Phil. 500, 508, July 12, 2001; People v. Valdez, 341 SCRA 25, 41-42, September 25, 2000; People v. Labtan, 377 Phil. 967, 982, 984, December 8, 1999; People v. De la Cruz, 344 Phil. 653, 660-661, September 17, 1997; People v. Del Rosario, 365 Phil. 292, 310, April 14, 1990; People v. Ayson, 175 SCRA 216, 231, July 7, 1989; and Gamboa v. Cruz, 162 SCRA 642, 648, June 27, 1988.
31 People v. Dano, 339 SCRA 515, 528, September 1, 2000, per Quisumbing, J. See also Aballe v. People, 183 SCRA 196, 205, March 15, 1990; People v. Dy, 158 SCRA 111, 123-124, February 23, 1988; and People v. Taylaran, 195 Phil. 226, 233-234, October 23, 1981.
32 In fact, the exclusionary rule under §12, paragraph (2) of the Bill of Rights, "applies only to admissions made in a criminal investigation but not to those made in an administrative investigation." Remolona v. CSC, 414 Phil. 590, 599, August 2, 2001, per Puno, J. See also Sebastian Sr. v. Garchitorena, supra; Manuel v. N.C. Construction Supply, 346 Phil. 1014, 1024, November 28, 1997; and Lumiqued v. Exevea, 346 Phil. 807, 822-823, November 18, 1997.
33 People v. Dano, supra. See People v. Ordoño, 390 Phil. 169, 183-184, June 29, 2000.
34 This provision prohibits the "compulsory oral examination of prisoners before the trial, or upon trial, for the purpose of extorting unwilling confessions or declarations implicating them in the commission of a crime." Bernas, supra, pp. 422-423; citing US v. Tan Teng, 23 Phil. 145, 152, September 7, 1912.
The kernel of this right is against testimonial compulsion only. Cruz, supra, p. 283. See Regalado, Remedial Law Compendium, Vol. II (7th rev. ed., 1995), p. 369.
35 People v. Rondero, 378 Phil. 123, 139-140, December 9, 1999. See People v. Bacor, 366 Phil. 197, 212, April 30, 1999.
36 Cruz, supra, p. 282.
37 Secretary of Justice v. Lantion, 379 Phil. 165, 200, January 18, 2000; citing Pascual Jr. v. Board of Medical Examiners, 138 Phil. 361, 366, May 26, 1969, and Cabal v. Kapunan Jr., 116 Phil. 1361, 1366-1369, December 29, 1962. See Bernas, supra, p. 423.
38 Alvero v. Dizon, 76 Phil. 637, 645, May 4, 1946.
39 Cruz, supra, p. 286.
40 The Bill of Rights in Article III of the Constitution is a statement of an individual’s rights that are normally protected, except in extreme cases of real public necessity, against impairment, usurpation, or removal by any form of State action. Sinco, Philippine Political Law: Principles and Concepts (10th ed., 1954), p. 73.
41 People v. Silvano, 381 SCRA 607, 616, April 29, 2002, per Mendoza, J. See People v. Domantay, 366 Phil. 459, 474, May 11, 1999; People v. Maqueda, 312 Phil. 646, 675-676, March 22, 1995; People v. Marti, 193 SCRA 57, 67, January 18, 1991.
42 Filoteo Jr. v. Sandiganbayan, 331 Phil. 531, 574, October 16, 1996, per Panganiban, J. See Bernas, supra, p. 33.
43 A person suspected or accused of a crime is entitled to the specific safeguards embodied in §§12 and 17 of the Bill of Rights against arbitrary prosecution or punishment. Cruz, supra, p. 274.
44 People v. Vallejo, 382 SCRA 192, 216, May 9, 2002, per curiam; citing People v. Andan, supra. See also People v. Ordoño, supra; People v. Barlis, 231 SCRA 426, 441, March 24, 1994; and People v. Layuso, 175 SCRA 47, 53, July 5, 1989.
45 Sinco, supra, p. 670.
46 In the absence of coercion, paragraph 17 of Article 32 of the Civil Code does not apply. It states:
"Art. 32. Any x x x private individual x x x who directly or indirectly x x x violates or in any manner impedes or impairs any of the following rights and liberties of another person shall be liable to the latter for damages:
"(17) Freedom from being compelled to be a witness against one’s self, or from being forced to confess a guilt x x x."
47 American Express International, Inc. v. CA, 367 Phil. 333, 341, June 8, 1999, per Bellosillo, J.; citing Tenio-Obsequio v. CA, 230 SCRA 550, 558, March 1, 1994. See Siasat v. IAC, 139 SCRA 238, 248, October 10, 1985.
48 Metropolitan Bank & Trust Co. v. CA, 194 SCRA 169, 176, February 18, 1991. See MWSS v. CA, 227 Phil. 18, 26, July 14, 1986.
49 Regalado, supra, p. 555.
50 §3(a) of Rule 130 of the Rules of Court.
51 De Vera v. Aguilar, 218 SCRA 602, 607, February 9, 1993.
52 Yabut’s Affidavit, p. 1; GR No. 149454 records, p. 323.
53 TSN, January 18, 1994, p. 13.
54 Id., p. 29.
55 Id., pp. 33-34.
56 Ibid.
57 RTC Decision, p. 3; GR No. 149454 rollo, p. 58.
58 §3 of Rule 130 of the Rules of Court.
59 Regalado, supra.
60 §22 of Rule 132 of the Rules of Court.
61 This adverse presumption does not arise when the suppression is not willful. Regalado, supra, p. 639; citing People v. Navaja, 220 SCRA 624, 633, March 30, 1993.
62 "x x x [T]he genuineness of a standard writing may be established by any of the following: (1) by the admission of the person sought to be charged with the disputed writing made at or for the purposes of the trial, or by his testimony; (2) by witnesses who saw the standards written or to whom or in whose hearing the person sought to be charged acknowledged the writing thereof; (3) by evidence showing that the reputed writer of the standard has acquiesced in or recognized the same, or that it has been adopted and acted upon by him in his business transactions or other concerns." Security Bank & Trust Company v. Triumph Lumber and Construction Corp., 361 Phil. 463, 478, January 21, 1999, per Davide Jr., CJ, citing BA Finance Corp. v. CA, 161 SCRA 608, 618, May 28, 1988.
63 Regalado, supra, p. 561.
64 This is the normal process followed in verifying signatures for purposes of making bank withdrawals.
65 Chiang Yia Min v. CA, 355 SCRA 608, 622-623, March 28, 2001.
66 Heirs of Gregorio v. CA, 360 Phil. 753, 763, December 29, 1998.
67 Ibid.
68 Id., p. 764.
69 Ibid.
70 §3(a) of Rule 130 of the Rules of Court.
71 Regalado, supra, p. 627.
72 §1 of Rule 133 of the Rules of Court.
73 The diligence required of banks is more than that of a pater familias or good father of a family. Bank of the Philippine Islands v. CA, 383 Phil. 538, 554, February 29, 2000. See Philippine Bank of Commerce v. CA, 336 Phil. 667, 681, March 14, 1997.
74 Philippine Commercial International Bank v. CA, 350 SCRA 446, 472, January 29, 2001.
75 §2 of Republic Act No. 8791, otherwise known as "The General Banking Law of 2000."
76 Westmont Bank v. Ong, 375 SCRA 212, 221, January 30, 2002; citing Citytrust Banking Corp. v. IAC, 232 SCRA 559, 564, May 27, 1994.
77 Simex International (Manila), Inc. v. CA, 183 SCRA 360, 367, March 19, 1990, per Cruz, J.
78 Article 1173 of the Civil Code.
79 San Carlos Milling Co., Ltd. v. Bank of the Philippine Islands, 59 Phil. 59, 66, December 11, 1933, per Hull, J.
80 BPI’s Memorandum, p. 14; GR No. 149454 rollo, p. 147.
81 Aside from positive confirmations, there are also negative ones that request debtors to respond to an auditor only if the balance in an attached statement is incorrect. Ricchiute, Auditing Concepts and Standards (rev. 2nd ed., 1991), p. 491.
82 Santos, Basic Auditing: Theory and Concepts, Vol. I (1988), p. 111.
83 Association of CPAs in Public Practice, Audit Manual (1985), p. 49.
84 Confirmation of accounts payable balances is normally applied to nearly every audit engagement. Holmes and Burns, Auditing Standards and Procedures (9th ed., 1979), p. 675.
A bank deposit is in the nature of a simple loan or mutuum, as provided for in Articles 1953 and 1980 of the Civil Code. See De Leon, Comments and Cases on Credit Transactions, 1995 ed., pp. 32-33; Integrated Realty Corp. v. Philippine National Bank, 174 SCRA 295, 309, June 28, 1989; Serrano v. Central Bank of the Philippines, 96 SCRA 96, 102, February 14, 1980; and Central Bank of the Philippines v. Morfe, 63 SCRA 114, 119, March 12, 1975.
In bank parlance, a bank deposit is an account payable by the bank to its client-depositor.
85 Santos, supra, p. 102.
86 Association of CPAs in Public Practice, Audit Manual, supra.
87 Id., p. 57.
88 Id., p. 24.
89 "Waiver is defined as the relinquishment of a known right with both knowledge of its existence and an intention to relinquish it." Tolentino, Commentaries and Jurisprudence on the Civil Code of the Philippines, Vol. I (1990), p. 29.
90 Article 6 of the Civil Code.
91 "The general rule of law is that a person may renounce any right which the law gives x x x." The Manila Railroad Company v. The Attorney-General, 20 Phil. 523, 537, December 1, 1911, per Moreland, J. See Tolentino, supra, p. 30.
92 Tolentino, supra, p. 28.
93 BPI’s Memorandum, p. 14; GR No. 149454 rollo, p. 147.
94 Tolentino, Commentaries and Jurisprudence on the Civil Code of the Philippines, Vol. IV (1991), p. 656.
95 Conclusive or absolute presumption. §2(a) of Rule 131 of the Rules of Court.
96 Art. 1431 of the Civil Code also provides:
"Through estoppel an admission or representation is rendered conclusive upon the person making it, and cannot be denied or disproved as against the person relying thereon."
97 Ramiro v. Graño, 54 Phil. 744, 750, March 31, 1930.
98 Lodovica v. CA, 65 SCRA 154, 158, July 18, 1975.
99 Kalalo v. Luz, 145 Phil. 152, 161, July 31, 1970, per Zaldivar, J.
100 Under Article 1231(1) of the Civil Code, payment is the actual performance that extinguishes an obligation.
It implies not only an assent to the order of the drawer and a recognition of the drawee’s obligation to pay the sum therein, but also a compliance with such obligation. Philippine National Bank v. CA, 134 Phil. 829, 833, October 29, 1968.
101 Greenbelt Branch. Assailed CA Decision, p. 3; GR No. 149454 rollo, p. 46; GR No. 149507 rollo, p. 24.
102 The Great Eastern Life Insurance Co. v. Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corp., 43 Phil. 678, 683, August 23, 1922.
103 Campos and Lopez-Campos, supra, pp. 286-287.
104 Associated Bank v. CA, 322 Phil. 677, 697, January 31, 1996, per Romero, J.; citing The Great Eastern Life Insurance Co. v. Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corp., supra, and Banco de Oro Savings and Mortgage Bank v. Equitable Banking Corp., 157 SCRA 188, 198, January 20, 1988.
105 Philippine National Bank v. CA, supra, per Concepcion, CJ; citing Blondeau v. Nano, 61 Phil. 625, 631-632, July 26, 1935. See Philippine National Bank v. The National City Bank of New York, 63 Phil. 711, 723-726, October 31, 1936.
106 Sangco, Philippine Law on Torts and Damages, Vol. I (rev. ed., 1993), p. 90.
107 Bataclán v. Medina, 109 Phil. 181, 185-186, October 22, 1957, per Montemayor, J.
108 Philippine National Bank v. Quimpo, 158 SCRA 582, 585, March 14, 1988, per Gancayco, J.
109 Gempesaw v. CA, supra, p. 696.
110 Agbayani, supra, p. 207.
111 As testified to on direct examination by Angelita Dandan, senior manager of the BPI Muntinlupa Branch and formerly connected with the BPI Forbes Park Branch. TSN, August 26, 1997, pp. 3-4, and 7.
112 "x x x [B]anks are expected to exercise the highest degree of diligence in the selection and supervision of their employees." BPI v. CA, 216 SCRA 51, 71, November 26, 1992, per Gutierrez Jr., J.
113 Philippine Commercial International Bank v. CA, supra, per Quisumbing, J., p. 469.
114 Agbayani, supra, p. 199.
115 BPI v. CA, supra, p. 65.
116 Holmes and Burns, supra, p. 1.
During the pendency of this case, an auditor had to ascertain whether the financial statements were in conformity with the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). Valix and Peralta, Financial Accounting (Vol. I, 1985 ed.), p. 8.
As of April 2004, the Accounting Standards Council (ASC) of the Philippines has approved many Statements of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) and has also adopted several International Accounting Standards (IAS) issued by the International Accounting Standards Council (IASC). http://www.picpa.com.ph/press.htm, last visited April 23, 2004, 12:05 p.m. PST.
117 Holmes and Burns, supra, p. 79.
118 Id., p. 206.
119 Certified public accountants or CPAs adhere to a Code of Professional Ethics, promulgated by the Board of Accountancy (BOA) on March 15, 1978. In January 2004, a new Code of Ethics for CPAs was approved by the Board of Directors of the Philippine Institute of CPAs (PICPA), to be recommended for adoption by the BOA and approval by the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) as part of the rules and regulations of the BOA for the practice of the accountancy profession in the Philippines. http://www.picpa.com.ph/news/codeofethics2.pdf, last visited April 23, 2004, 12:17 p.m. PST.
120 Holmes and Burns, supra, p. 79.
121 Santos, supra, pp. 11 & 168.
122 Holmes and Burns, supra, p. 80.
123 Ricchiute, supra, p. 48.
124 Santos, supra, pp. 52 & 76.
125 As testified to on cross-examination by Carina Lebron (TSN, February 13, 1992, pp. 18-19). See Yabut’s Affidavit, p. 1; GR No. 149454 records, p. 323.
That Respondent Yabut is a CPA appears in CASA’s pretrial Brief. GR No. 149454 records, p. 83.
126 Yabut’s Affidavit, supra.
127 Ricchiute, supra, p. 54.
128 Santos, supra, p. 6.
129 Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. TMX Sales, Inc., 205 SCRA 184, 191, January 15, 1992.
As of April 2004, many Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS) have been replaced by International Standards on Auditing (ISA).
130 A depositor has a duty to set up an accounting system that is reasonably calculated to prevent any forgery or to render it difficult to perpetrate. Gempesaw v. CA, supra, p. 690.
131 A bank reconciliation is an audit technique that verifies if the cash balance appearing on a bank statement per bank records is in agreement with that in the depositor’s records or books of accounts. Meigs and Meigs, Accounting: The Basis for Business Decisions, Part I (5th ed., 1981), p. 315.
132 §24 of Presidential Decree (PD) No. 692, otherwise known as "The Revised Accountancy Law."
133 Chiang Yia Min v. CA, supra, p. 624, per Gonzaga-Reyes, J.
134 GR No. 149454 records, p. 491.
135 Cutoff bank statements do not represent all the transactions in a given month. Ricchiute, supra, p. 498.
136 Taylor v. The Manila Electric Railroad and Light Co., 16 Phil. 8, 28, March 22, 1910, per Carson, J.; citing Scævola in Jurisprudencia del Código Civil, Vol. 6 (1902), pp. 551-552.
137 Taylor v. The Manila Electric Railroad and Light Co., supra, p. 27, quoting the judgment of the Supreme Court of Spain on June 12, 1900.
138 Before there can be a judgment for damages, "negligence must be affirmatively established by competent evidence." Sor Consuelo Barceló v. The Manila Electric Railroad and Light Co., 29 Phil. 351, 359, January 28, 1915, per Carson, J.
139 §27 of PD 692.
140 Good governance has been defined as a "really strong senior managerial control" exercised by the chief executive officer or "CEO and one of his/her strongest direct reports." Gerry Conroy, Good Governance and Good Management Keys to Successful Project Management. http://www.pwcglobal.com/Extweb/ncinthenews.nsf/docid/28123C3F882E48B7CA256AFA007A33EA, last visited May 6, 2004, 1:12 p.m. PST.
"Accountability is a key requirement of good governance." As such, it "cannot be enforced without transparency and the rule of law." http://www.unescap.org/huset/gg/governance.htm, last visited May 6, 2004, 12:55 p.m. PST.
141 http://www.picpa.com.ph, last visited May 4, 2004, 1:57 p.m. PST.
142 Isidra Carandang. TSN, February 13, 1992, pp. 18-19.
143 Felipa Cabuyao. TSN, February 13, 1992, pp. 18-19.
Yabut admitted that he had recommended Cabuyao to the position. Yabut’s Affidavit, supra.
144 The job of a bookkeeper is so integrated with a corporation that the regular recording of its business accounts and transactions safeguards it from possible fraud, which is adverse to its corporate interest. Pabon v. NLRC, 296 SCRA 7, 14, September 24, 1998.
145 Yabut’s Affidavit, p. 1; GR No. 149454 records, p. 323.
146 Holmes and Burns, supra, pp. 84-86.
147 Campos and Lopez-Campos, supra, p. 287; Agbayani, supra, p. 211. Both cited Article 2154 of the Civil Code.
148 Ong Yiu v. CA, 91 SCRA 223, 229, June 29, 1979.
149 Suario v. Bank of the Philippine Islands, 176 SCRA 688, 696, August 25, 1989; citing Guita v. CA, 139 SCRA 576, 580, November 11, 1985.
150 Rubio v. CA, 141 SCRA 488, 515-516, March 12, 1986; citing R&B Surety & Insurance Co., Inc. v. IAC, 214 Phil. 649, 657, June 22, 1984.
151 Filinvest Credit Corp. v. Mendez, 152 SCRA 593, 601, July 31, 1987.
152 Article 2216 of the Civil Code.
153 Silva v. Peralta, 110 Phil. 57, 64, November 25, 1960.
154 Article 2217 of the Civil Code.
155 Dee Hua Liong Electrical Equipment Corp. v. Reyes, 230 Phil. 101, 107, November 25, 1986.
156 Guilatco v. City of Dagupan, 171 SCRA 382, 389, March 21, 1989; citing Bagumbayan Corp. v. IAC, 217 Phil. 421, 424, September 30, 1984.
157 Soberano v. Manila Railroad Co., 124 Phil. 1330, 1337, November 23, 1966; citing Fores v. Miranda, 105 Phil. 266, 274, 276, March 4, 1959 and Necesito v. Paras, 104 Phil. 75, 82-83, June 30, 1958.
158 Northwest Orient Airlines v. CA, 186 SCRA 440, 444, June 8, 1990; citing Sabena Belgian World Airlines v. CA, 171 SCRA 620, 629, March 31, 1989.
159 Cathay Pacific Airways, Ltd. v. Vazquez, 399 SCRA 207, 220, March 14, 2003, per Davide Jr., CJ; citing Francisco v. Ferrer Jr., 353 SCRA 261, 265, February 28, 2001. See also Morris v. CA, 352 SCRA 428, 437, February 21, 2001; Magat Jr. v. CA, 337 SCRA 298, 307, August 4, 2000; and Tan v. Northwest Airlines, Inc., 383 Phil. 1026, 1032, March 3, 2000.
160 LBC Express, Inc. v. CA, 236 SCRA 602, 607, September 21, 1994. See Layda v. CA, 90 Phil. 724, 730, January 29, 1952.
161 Article 2217 of the Civil Code.
162 Morales, The Philippine General Banking Law (Annotated 2002), pp. 3-4; citing Simex International (Manila), Inc. v. CA, supra, and Mambulao Lumber Co. v. Philippine National Bank, 130 Phil. 366, 391, January 30, 1968.
163 Sangco, supra, p. 989.
164 Grapilon v. Municipal Council of Carigara, Leyte, 112 Phil. 24, 29, May 30, 1961.
165 Article 2229 of the Civil Code.
166 Ledesma v. CA, 160 SCRA 449, 456, April 15, 1988, Prudenciado v. Alliance Transport System, Inc., 148 SCRA 440, 450, March 16, 1987; and Lopez v. Pan American World Airways, 123 Phil. 256, 267, March 30, 1966.
167 De Leon v. CA, 165 SCRA 166, 176, August 31, 1988; Sweet Lines, Inc. v. CA, 206 Phil. 663, 669, April 28, 1983; Octot v. Ybañez, 197 Phil. 76, 82, January 18, 1982; and Ventanilla v. Centeno, 110 Phil. 811, 816, January 28, 1961, citing Article 2233 of the Civil Code.
168 Article 2232 of the Civil Code. See Nadura v. Benguet Consolidated, Inc., 116 Phil. 28, 32, August 24, 1962.
169 Estopa v. Piansay Jr., 109 Phil. 640, 642, September 30, 1960.
170 Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. of the Philippines v. Ines Chaves & Co., Ltd., 124 Phil. 947, 950, October 19, 1966, citing Heirs of Basilisa Justiva vs. Gustilo, 117 Phil. 71, 73, January 31, 1963. See Tan Ti (alias Tan Tico) v. Alvear, 26 Phil. 566, 571, January 16, 1914.
171 Scott Consultants & Resource Development Corporation, Inc. v. CA, 312 Phil. 466, 481, March 16, 1995, per Davide Jr., J. (now CJ.).
172 Article 2208 (2) of the Civil Code. See Rivera v. Litam & Co., Inc., 114 Phil. 1009, 1022, April 25, 1962; and Luneta Motor Co. v. Baguio Bus Co., Inc., 108 Phil. 892, 898, June 30, 1960.
173 Article 2208 (11) of the Civil Code. See Philippine National Bank v. Utility Assurance & Surety Co., Inc., 177 SCRA 208, 219, September 1, 1989; citing Plaridel Surety & Insurance Co., Inc. v. P.L. Galang Machinery Co., Inc., 100 Phil. 679, 682, January 11, 1957. See also Apelario v. Ines Chavez & Co., Ltd., 113 Phil. 215, 217-218, October 16, 1961; and Guitarte v. Sabaco, 107 Phil. 437, 440, March 28, 1960.
174 Jarencio, Torts and Damages in Philippine Law (4th ed., 1983), p. 334; citing Pirovano v. The De la Rama Steamship Co., 96 Phil. 335, 367, December 29, 1954.
175 When a claim is made judicially under Article 1169 of the Civil Code.
176 Philippine National Bank v. Utility Assurance & Surety Co., Inc., supra.
177 Cabral v. CA, 178 SCRA 90, 93, September 29, 1989.
178 Article 2209 of the Civil Code.
179 Francisco v. CA, supra, p. 381, per Gonzaga-Reyes, J.
180 In compounding interest, "x x x the amount of interest earned for a certain period is added to the principal for the next period. Interest for the subsequent period is computed on the new amount, which includes both the principal and accumulated interest." Smith and Skousen, Intermediate Accounting, the 11th ed., 1992, p. 235.
181 "The payment (cost) for the use of money is interest." Id., p. 234.
182 Article 2210 of the Civil Code.
183 The law merchant refers to the body of law relating to mercantile transactions and instruments of widespread use. Its usage as adopted by the courts is the origin of the law merchant on negotiable securities. Agbayani, supra, pp. 11-12.
184 A current account is a commercial transaction. In re Liquidation of Mercantile Bank of China, Tan Tiong Tick v. American Apothecaries Co., 65 Phil. 414, 419-420, March 31, 1938.
