G.R. No. L-1612




Republic of the Philippines SUPREME COURT Manila EN BANC G.R. No. L-1612 February 26, 1948 JORGE B. VARGAS, petitioner, vs. EMILIO RILLORAZA, JOSE BERNABE, MANUEL ESCUDERO, Judges of the People's Court, and THE SOLICITOR GENERAL OF THE PHILIPPINES, respondents. Claro M. Recto for petitioner. Office of the Solicitor General Manuel Lim and Assistant Solicitor General Manuel P. Barcelona for respondents. HILADO, J.: Counsel for the defense, in a motion dated August 28, 1947, assails the constitutionality of section 14 of the People's Court Act (Commonwealth Act No. 682) upon the following grounds: (a) It provides for qualification of members of the Supreme Court, other than those provided in section 6, Article VIII of the Philippine Constitution. (b) It authorizes the appointment of members of the Supreme Court who do not possess the qualifications set forth in section 6, Article VIII, of the Philippine Constitution. (c) It removes from office the members of the Supreme Court by means of a procedure other than impeachment, contrary to Article IX, of the Philippine Constitution. (d) It deprives the Commission on Appointments of Congress of its constitutional prerogative to confirm or reject appointments to the Supreme Court. (e) It creates two Supreme Courts. (f) it impairs the rule making power of the Supreme Court, contrary to section 13, Article VIII of the Philippine Constitution. (g) It is a Bill of Attainder, for it punishes by disqualification members of the Supreme Court who rendered said public service during the Japanese occupation. (h) It denies equal protection of the laws. (i) It is an ex post pacto legislation. (j) It amends the Constitution by a procedure not sanctioned by Article XV, of the Philippine Constitution. (k) It destroys the independence of the Judiciary, and it permits the "packing" of the Supreme Court in certain cases, either by Congress or by the President. The Solicitor General, in behalf of the prosecution, opposes the motion and in support of his opposition submits these propositions: 1. Power of Congress to enact section 14 of Commonwealth Act No. 682. 2. Section 14 of Commonwealth Act No. 682 does not and is not intended to provide an additional qualification for members of the Supreme Court, much less does it amend section 6, Article VIII, of the Constitution of the Philippines. 3. Qualifications of members of the Supreme Court prescribed in section 6, Article VIII of the Constitution apply to permanent "appointees" — not to temporary "designees." 4. Section 5, Article VIII of the Constitution is not applicable to temporary designations under section 14, Commonwealth Act No. 682. 5. It does not remove but merely disqualifies the members of the Supreme Court affected to sit and vote in the particular class of cases therein mentioned. 6. It does not create an additional "Special Supreme Court." 7. It does not impair the rule-making power of the Supreme Court but merely supplements the Rules of Court. 8. It is not a bill of attainder. 9. It is not an ex post pacto law. 10. It does not deny equal protection of the laws either to the Justices of the Supreme Court affected or the treason indicates concerned. 11. It does not amend any constitutional provision. 12. It does not destroy the independence of the judiciary or curtail the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. This opposition is a reproduction by reference in the instant case of a similar pleading filed by the Solicitor General in G.R. No. L-398, People vs. Sison, pursuant to the resolution of this Court in the instant case dated October 30, 1947, granting the prayer of the Assistant Solicitor General that in the consideration of petitioner's memorandum herein of September 27, 1947. It will not be necessary for the purposes of this resolution to consider and decide all the legal questions thus raised by these conflicting contentions of the parties. For the purposes of the present resolution, the considerations presently to be set forth are deemed insufficient. Article VIII, section 4, of the Constitution ordains that the Supreme Court shall be composed of a Chief Justice and ten Associate Justices and may sit either in banc or in two divisions unless otherwise provided by law. Section 5 of the same Article provides, inter alia, that the members of the Supreme Court shall be appointed by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments. Section 6 of the same Article stipulates that no person may be appointed member of the Supreme Court unless he has been five years a citizen of the Philippines, is at least 40 years of age, and has for 10 years or more been a judge of a court of record or engaged in the practice of law in the Philippines. By virtue of section 9 of said Article, the members of the Supreme Court, among other judicial officials, shall not hold office during good behavior, until they reach, the age of 70 years, or become incapacitated, or become incapacitated to discharge the duties of their office. Section 13 of the same Article VIII, inter alia, enunciates procedure thereby repealed as statutes and are declared rules of court, subject to the power of the Supreme Court to alter and modify the same, and to the power of the Congress to repeal, alter, or supplement them. Art. XVI, section 2, provides that "all laws of the Philippine Islands shall continue in force until the inauguration of the Commonwealth, and thereafter they shall remain operative unless inconsistent with this Constitution, until amended, altered, modified, or repealed by the Congress of the Philippines ..." Before the adoption of the Constitution, the law on disqualification of judges was contained in the Code of Civil Procedure, sections 8 and 608. If said sections should be considered as parts of the then existing adjective legislation, Article VIII, section 13, of the constitution repealed them along with the others dealing with pleading, practice and procedure, as statutes, and declared them rules of court, subject to the power of the Supreme Court to alter and modify the same, without prejudice to the power of the Congress to repeal, alter or supplement them. In such case, when the Constitution so provided in said section 13, it sanctioned as rules of court, among other provisions, those in said sections 8 and 609 of the former Code of Civil Procedure concerning the disqualification of judges. If said sections should be deemed as pertaining to then existing substantive legislation, then they were continued as laws or statutes by the aforecited provision of Article XVI, section 2. By virtue either of Article VIII, section 13, or Article XVI, section 2, of the constitution, therefore, the grounds for disqualifying judges, which had been held to include justices of the Supreme Court (Jurado & Co, vs. Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation, 1 Phil., 395) were those established in sections 8 and 608 of the former Code of Civil Procedure. The Supreme Court later promulgated the present Rules of Court wherein Rule 123 treats of the matter of disqualification of judicial officers. The provisions of said rule have been taken from the above-cited sections 8 and 608 of the same former Code of Civil Procedure (see also II Moran, Comments on the Rules of Court, 2d ed., pp. 779-782). By reason of the fact that the aforementioned provisions of the former Code of Civil Procedure were continued by the constitution itself, either as rules of court or as laws or statutes — a point we need not now decide — there can be no question of unconstitutionality or repugnancy of said provisions to the constitution as regards the disqualification of judicial officers. In other words, the framers deemed it fit, right and proper that said provisions shall continue to govern the disqualification of judicial officers. Such question of unconstitutionality or repugnancy to the constitution, however, arises in relation to the disqualification of certain members of the Supreme Court provided for in section 14 of the People's Court Act which says: SEC. 14. Any Justice of the Supreme Court who held any office or position under the Philippine Executive Commission or under the government called Philippine Republic may not sit and vote in any case brought to that Court under section thirteen hereof in which the accused is a person who held any office or position under either or both the Philippine Executive Commission and the Philippine Republic or any branch, instrumentality and/or agency thereof. If, on account of such disqualification, or because of any of the grounds or disqualification of judges, in Rule 126, section 1 of the Rules of Court, or on account of illness, absence of temporary disability the requisite number of Justices necessary to constitute a quorum or to render judgment in any case is not present, the President may designate such number of Judges of First Instance, Judges-at-large of First Instance, or Cadastral Judges, having none of the disqualifications set forth in said section one hereof, as may be necessary to sit temporarily as Justice of said Court, in order to form a quorum or until a judgment in said case is reached. We propose to approach this question from the following angles: (a) whether or not the Congress had power to ass to the pre-existing grounds of disqualification of a Justice of the Supreme Court, that provided for in said section 14; (b) whether or not a person may act as a Justice of the Supreme Court who has not been duly appointed by the President and confirmed by the Commission on Appointments pursuant to the constitution , even only as a "designee"; and (c) whether or not by the method of "designation" created by the aforecited section 14 a Judge of First Instance, Judge-at-large of First Instance, or Cadastral Judge, designated by the President under the same section can constitutionally "sit temporarily as Justice" of the Supreme Court by virtue thereof. (a) We start with the principle, well known to the legal profession, that no act of the legislature repugnant to the constitution can become law (In re Guariña, 24 Phil., 37, 45; Marbury vs. Madison, 1 Cranch 175). To discover whether the above quoted section 14 of the People's Court Act is repugnant to the constitution, one of the best tests would be to compare the operation with the same section if the latter were to be allowed to produce its effects. It is self evident that before the enactment of the oft-quoted section of the People's Court Act, it was not only the power but the bounden duty of all members of the Supreme Court to sit in judgment in all treason cases duly brought or appealed to the Court. That power and that duty arise from the above cited sections of Article VIII of the Constitution, namely, section 4, providing how the court shall be composed and how it may sit, section 9, ordaining that they shall hold office during good behavior until they reach the age of seventy years or become, incapacitated to discharge the duties of their office, and the pertinent constitutional and statutory provisions bearing on the jurisdiction, powers and responsibilities of the Supreme Court. Competently referring to the instant case, if section 14 of the People's Court Act had not been inserted therein, there can be no question that each and every member of this Court would have to sit in judgment in said case. But if said section 14 were to be effective, such members of the Court "who held any office or position under the Philippine Executive Commission or under the government called Philippine Republic" would be disqualified from sitting and voting in the instant case, because the accused herein is a person who likewise held an office or position at least under the Philippine Executive Commission. In other words, what the constitution in this respect ordained as a power and a duty to be exercised and fulfilled by said members of the People's Court Act would prohibit them from exercising and fulfilling. What the constitution directs the section prohibits. A clearer case of repugnancy of fundamental law can hardly be imagined. For repugnancy to result it is not necessary that there should be an actual removal of the disqualified Justice from his office for, as above demonstrated, were it not for the challenged section 14 there would have been an uninterrupted continuity in the tenure of the displaced Justice and in his exercise of the powers and fulfillment of the duties appertaining to his office, saving only proper cases or disqualification under Rule 126. What matters here is not only that the Justice affected continue to be a member of the Court and to enjoy the emoluments as well as to exercise the other powers and fulfill the other duties of his office, but that he be left unhampered to exercise all the powers and fulfill all the responsibilities of said office in all cases properly coming before his Court under the constitution, again without prejudice to proper cases of disqualification under Rule 126. Any statute enacted by the legislature which would impede him in this regard, in the words of this Court in In re Guariña, supra, citing Marbury vs. Madison, supra, "simply can not become law." It goes without saying that, whether the matter of disqualification of judicial officers belong to the realm of adjective, or to that of substantive law, whatever modifications, change or innovation the legislature may propose to introduce therein, must not in any way contravene the provisions of the constitution, nor be repugnant to the genius of the governmental system established thereby. The tripartite system, the mutual independence of the three departments — in particular, the independence of the judiciary —, the scheme of checks and balances, are commonplaces in democratic governments like this Republic. No legislation may be allowed which would destroy or tend to destroy any of them. Under Article VIII, section 2 (4) of the Constitution the Supreme Court may not be deprived of its appellate jurisdiction, among others, over those criminal cases where the penalty may be death or life imprisonment. Pursuant to Article VIII, sections 4, 5, 6, and 9 of the Constitution the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court may only be exercised by the Chief Justice with the consent of the Commission of Appointments, sitting in banc or in division, and in cases like those involving treason they must sit in banc. If according to section 4 of said Article VIII, "the Supreme Court shall be composed" of the Chief Justice and Associate Justices therein referred to, its jurisdiction can only be exercised by it as thus composed. To disqualify any of these constitutional component members of the Court — particularly, as in the instant case, a majority of them — is nothing short of pro tanto depriving the Court itself of its jurisdiction as established by the fundamental law. Disqualification of a judge is a deprivation of his judicial power. (Diehl vs. Crumb, 72 Okl., 108; 179 Pac., 44). And if that judge is the one designated by the constitution to exercise the jurisdiction of his court, as is the case with the Justices of this Court, the deprivation of his or their judicial power is equivalent to the deprivation of the judicial power of the court itself. It would seem evident that if the Congress could disqualify members of this Court to take part in the hearing and determination of certain collaboration cases it could extend the disqualification to other cases. The question is not one of degree or reasonableness. It affects the very heart of judicial independence. Willoughby's United States Constitutional Law, under the topic of separation of powers, Volume 3, pages 1622-1624, says: Upon the other hand, as we shall see, the courts have not hesitated to protect their own independence from legislative control, not simply be refusing to give effect to retroactive declaratory statutes, or to acts attempting the revision or reversal of judicial determination, but by refusing themselves to entertain jurisdiction in cases in which they have not been given the power to enforce their decrees by their own writs of execution. Thus, as already mentioned, they have refused to act where their decisions have been subject to legislative or administrative revisions. Finally, even where the extent of their jurisdiction, as to both parties litigant and subject-matter, has been subject to legislative control, the courts have not permitted themselves to be deprived of the power necessary for maintaining the dignity, the orderly course of their procedure, and the effectiveness of their writs. In order that the court may perform its judicial functions with dignity and effectiveness, it is necessary that it should possess certain powers. Among these is the right to issue certain writs, called extra-ordinary writs, such as mandamus, injunction, certiorari, prohibition, etc. and especially, to punish for contempt any disobedience to its orders. The possession of these powers the courts have jealously guarded, and in accordance with the constitutional doctrine of the separation and independence of the three departments of government, have held, and undoubtedly will continue to hold, invalid any attempt on the part of the legislature to deprive them by statute of any power the exercise of which they deem essential to the proper performance of their judicial functions. The extent of their jurisdiction, they argue, may be more or less within legislative control, but the possession of powers for the efficient exercise of that jurisdiction, whether statutory or constitutional, which they do possess, they cannot be deprived of. It has already been pointed out that the jurisdiction of the inferior Federal courts and the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court are wholly within the control of Congress, depending as they do upon statutory grant. It has, however, been argued that while the extent of this jurisdiction is thus within the control of the legislature, that body may not control the manner in which the jurisdiction which is granted shall be exercised, at least to the extent of denying to the courts the authority to issue writs and take other judicial action necessary for the proper and effective execution of their functions. In other words, the argument is, that while jurisdiction is obtained by congressional grant, judicial power, when once a court is established and given a jurisdiction, at once attaches by direct force of the Constitution. This position was especially argued by Senator Knox, Spooner and Culberson and contested by Senator Bailey during the debate upon the Repburn Railway Rate Bill of 1906. The point at issue was the constitutionality of the amendment offered by Senator Bailey providing that no rate or charge, regulation or practice, prescribed by the Interstate Commerce Commission, should be set aside or suspended by any preliminary or interlocutory decree or order of a circuit court. This position would seem to be well taken, and would apply to attempts upon the part of Congress to specify the classes of statutes whose constitutionality may be questioned by the courts, or to declare the number of justices of the Supreme Court who will be required to concur in order to render a judgment declaring the unconstitutionality of an act of Congress. In State vs. Morrill (16 Ark., 384), the Supreme Court of Arkansas declared: The legislature may regulate the exercise of, but cannot abridge, the express or necessarily implied powers granted to this court by the Constitution. If it could, it might encroach upon both the judicial and executive departments, and draw to itself all the powers of government; and thereby destroy that admirable system of checks and balances to be found in the organic framework of both the federal and state institutions, and a favorite theory in the government of the American people . . . . The members affected by the prohibition have heretofore disqualified themselves, partly because they presumed the statute valid and partly because they would rather have no hand in the revision of the appeals, for the purpose of avoiding even a breath of suspicion as to the impartiality of their actuations. However, realizing upon a thorough analysis of the matter by counsel on both sides, the far-reaching implications which the precedent might authorize, imperilling the independence of one coordinate branch of the Government, they finally cast aside all reluctance to consider the point, and came out with practical unanimity to condemn any legislation which impinges or might impinge upon the fundamental independents powers of the judicature. Some of them have no quarrel with legislative authority to enumerate instances in which judges may not sit. They would even concede that. But, they say, let the rules be promulgated before the event happens or litigation arises. To promulgate them after, would enable the Congress in specific situations to order that Judge X shall not decide the controversy between Y and Z or that Justice M shall not sit in the appeal of P.S. and so on ad infinitum, and thus decisively influence the decision, for or against one party litigant. Such legislative power might thus be wielded to interfere with the functions of the judiciary, depriving Philippine citizens of their right of impartial awards from judges selected without any reference to the parties or interest to be affected. Unnecessary to prove or impute sinister motives behind the statutory disqualification. Enough that recognition of the power might give way to the operation of unworthy combinations or oppressive designs. Let it not be argued that the Court is the same, only the membership being different. Because Article VIII, sections 4 and 5, of the Constitution do not admit any composition of the Supreme Court other than the Chief Justice and Associate Justices therein mentioned appointed as therein provided. And the infringement is enhanced and aggravated where a majority of the members of the Court — as in this case — are replaced by judges of first instance. It is distinctly another Supreme Court in addition to this. And the constitution provides for only one Supreme Court. From all that has been said above it results that the ground for disqualification added by section 14 of Commonwealth Act No. 682 to those already existing at the time of the adoption of the Constitution and continued by it is not only arbitrary and irrational but positively violative of the organic law. (b) In the face of the constitutional requirement (Art. VIII, section 5) that the members of the Supreme Court should be appointed by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments, we are of the opinion that no person not so appointed may act as Justice of the Supreme Court and that the "designation" authorized in section 14 of the People's Court Act to be made by the President of any Judge of First Instance, Judge-at-large of First Instance or cadastral Judge can not possibly be a compliance with the provision requiring that appointment. An additional disqualifying circumstance of the "designee" is the lack of confirmation by or consent of the Commission on Appointments. Without intending the least reflection on the ability, learning, and integrity of any such "designee", we are merely construing and applying the fundamental law of the land. A Judge of First Instance, Judge-at-large of First Instance or Cadastral Judge, under section 149 of the Revised Administrative Code, need not be at least forty years of age, nor have more than ten years or more been a judge of a court of record or engaged in the practice of law in the Philippines (as required by section 6 of Article VIII of the Constitution), because under said section he need only have practiced law for a period of not less than five years or have held during a like period within the Philippines an office requiring a lawyer's diploma. So that it may happen that a "designee" under section 14 of the People's Court Act, sitting as a substitute Justice of the Supreme Court in particular collaboration cases, and participating therein in the deliberations and functions of the Supreme Court, like any regular Justice thereof, does not possess the required constitutional qualifications of a regular member of said Court. Here again is another point of repugnancy between the challenged section and the constitution. And if we consider the actual fact that only four of the present ten Justices of this Court are not adversely affected by the disqualification established in section 14 of the People's Court Act, we see that the "designees" constitute a majority when sitting with said four Justices, giving rise to the result that, if the composed by them all should be considered as the Supreme Court, it would be composed by four members appointed and confirmed pursuant to sections 4 and 5 of Article VIII of the Constitution and six who have not been so appointed and confirmed. The situation would not be helped any by saying that such composition of the Court is only temporary, for no temporary composition of the Supreme Court is authorized by the constitution. This tribunal, as established under the organic law, is one of the permanent institutions of the government. The clause "unless otherwise provided by law" found in said section 4 can not be construed to authorize any legislation which would alter the composition of the Supreme Court, as determined by the Constitution, for however brief a time as may be imagined. In principle, what really matters is not the length or shortness of the constitutional composition of the Court, but the very permanence an unalterability of that composition so long as the constitution which ordains it remains permanent and unaltered. We are furthermore of opinion that said clause refers to the number of Justices who were to compose the Court upon its initial organization under the Commonwealth, and the manner of its sitting; that is, that the Legislature, when providing for the initial organization of the Supreme Court under the Commonwealth, was authorized to fix a different number of Justices than eleven, and determine the manner of the Court's sitting differently from that established in section 4 of Article VIII of the Constitution, but it was and is not empowered to alter the qualifications of the Justices and the mode of their appointment, which are matters governed by sections 5 and 6 of said Article VIII wherein the clause "unless otherwise provided by law" does not ever exist, nor the provision on who shall be the component members of the Court. Such a legislation was enacted in the form of Commonwealth Acts Nos. 3 and 259, the pertinent provisions of which amended sections 133 and 134 of the Revised Administrative Code. But after liberation, the Chief Executive, by Executive Order No. 40 (41 Off. Gaz., 187) amended sections 133 and 134 of the Revised Administrative Code, as amended by section section 2 of Commonwealth Act No. 3 and sections 1 and 2 of Commonwealth Act No. 259, and repealed all acts or parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of said executive order; and the same Chief Executive, by Executive Order No. 86 (42 Off. Gaz., 15) further amended section 133 of the Revised Administrative Code, as thus previously amended, also repealing all acts or parts of acts inconsistent therewith. Both by virtue of Executive Order no. 40 and Executive Order No. 86, the number of Justices of the Supreme Court, as originally fixed at eleven by the Constitution, was restored. (c) However temporary or brief may be the action or participation of a judge designated under section 14 of the People's Court Act in a collaboration case of the class therein defined, there is no escaping the fact that he would be participating in the deliberations and acts of the Supreme Court, as the appellate tribunal in such a case, and if allowed to do so, his vote would count as much as that of any regular Justice of the Court. There can be no doubt that the Chief Justice and Associate Justices required by section 4 of Article VIII of the Constitution to compose the Supreme Court — indeed, a "temporary member" thereof would be a misnomer, implying a position not contemplated by the constitution. Section 5 of the same Article VIII, in requiring the members of the Supreme Court to be appointed by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointment, makes it plainly indubitable that the Chief Justice and Associate Justices who are to compose the Court and sit therein under section 4, have to be thus appointed and confirmed. As already adverted to, a mere designation under section 14 of the People's Court Act does not satisfy the Constitutional requirement of appointment, with the additional circumstance that as to such designation, the Commission on Appointments is entirely dispensed with. We find absolutely nothing in the context which may soundly be construed as authorizing, merely by legislation, any change in the constitutional composition of the Supreme Court, or the performance of its functions by any but its constitutional members. On the other hand, we have to go by the cardinal rule that "usually provisions of a constitution are mandatory rather than directory, and mandatory provisions are binding on all department of the government." (16 C.J.S., 120). The main reason for this rule is that in the Constitutions the sovereign itself speaks and is laying down rules which, for the time at least, are to control alike the government and the governed. It is an instrument of a solemn and permanent character, laying down fundamental maxims, and, ordinarily, is not supposed to concern itself with mere rules or order in unessential matters (Baker vs. Moorhead, 174 N.W., 430, 431; 103 Neb. m, 811); Court is loath to say that any language of the constitution is merely directory. Scopes vs. State, 289 S.W., 363, 366; 154 Tenn., 105; 53 A.L.R., 821). (Footnote 93, C.J.S., 120.) Under sections 4 and 5 of Article VIII of the Constitution, it is clear that the framers intended the Supreme Court to function through the members who are therein defined: and by section 6 they determined who may be appointed such members. This naturally excludes the intervention of any person or official who is not a member of the Court in the performance of its functions; and it is self-evident that the "designees" spoken of in section 14 of the People's Court Act can not be such members in view of the fact that they have not been appointed and confirmed as such pursuant to said sections 5 and 6. Hence, we do not see the way clear to the proposition that the "designees" in such a case can constitutionally "sit temporarily as Justices" of the Supreme Court. By an act of the United States Congress dated February 6, 1905, it was provided in part as follows: Temporary judges of the Supreme Court; ... Whenever by reason of temporary disability of any judge of the Supreme Court or by reason of vacancies occurring therein, a quorum of the court shall not be present for business the Governor General of the Philippine Islands is authorized to designate a judge or judges of the court of First Instance in the islands to sit and act temporarily as judge or judges of the Supreme Court in order to constitute a quorum of said Supreme Court for business. . . . . As part of the membership of the Court believes that this provision is still in force by virtue of Article XVI, section 2, of the Constitution, and should still be applied to cases of "temporary disability ... or vacancies occurring" and preventing a quorum; while the other members are not prepared to subscribe to the same view, for the reason that the designation" thereby authorized would be "inconsistent with this constitution," in the word of the cited section, the same as the "designation" authorized by section 14 of the People's Court Act. Anyway, we need not decide the point now. This decision has been prepared before this date, and is being promulgated before the Court acts upon the Solicitor General's motion to dismiss dates February 17, 1948, for the rulings contained herein. For the foregoing consideration, it is declared and ordered: (a) that section 14 of the People's Court Act is unconstitutional in the respects specified in the body of this resolution; and (b) that this case be dealt with henceforward in pursuance of and in harmony with this resolution. So ordered. Moran, C.J., Paras, Pablo, Bengzon, and Tuason, JJ., concur. Separate Opinions MORAN, C.J., concurring: I agree with the majority decision principally upon the ground that section 14 of the People's Court Act No. 682 is so unfair and unjustified that it not only unjustly deprives a majority of the members of this Court of their membership in the cognizance of treason cases, but it also provides for substitutes who may not have the qualifications of Justices of the Supreme Court, thus destroying the quality and integrity of the Court's composition as is provided by the Constitution. Judicial independence as intended by the constitution is greatly affected by this legal provision. PERFECTO, J.: We concur in the above resolution penned by Mr. Justice Hilado, our whole position being stated in our separate concurring opinion. BRIONES, J.: Estoy conforme con la parte dispositiva y me reservo el redactar un dictamen concurrente separado. PERFECTO, J., concurring: The constitutionality of section 14 of Commonwealth Act No. 682, creating the People's Court, is again in issue. As stated in the majority decision, penned by Mr. Justice Hilado, the following are the eleven grounds upon which petitioner challenges the validity of said section: (a) It provides for qualification of members of the Supreme Court, other than those provided in section 6, Article VIII of the Philippine Constitution. (b) It authorizes the appointment of members of the Supreme Court who do not possess the qualifications set forth in section 6, Article VIII, of the Philippine Constitution. (c) It removes from office the members of the Supreme Court by means of a procedure other than impeachment, contrary to Article IX, of the Philippine Constitution. (d) It deprives the Commission on Appointments of Congress of its constitutional prerogative to confirm or reject appointments to the Supreme Court. (e) It creates two Supreme Courts. (f) It impairs the rule making power of the Supreme Court, contrary to section 13, Article VIII of the Philippine Constitution. (g) It is a Bill of Attainder, for it punishes by disqualification members of the Supreme Court who rendered said public service during the Japanese occupation. (h) It denies equal protection of the laws. (i) It is an ex post facto legislation. (j) It amends the Constitution by a procedure not sanctioned by Article XV, of the Philippine Constitution. (k) It destroys the independence of the Judiciary, and it permits the "packing" of the Supreme Court in certain cases, either by Congress or by the President. We fully concur in all the reasonings of the decision showing the conflict between the section in controversy and the provisions of the Constitution and, therefore, in the conclusion that said section is null and void ab initio, with the same effect as if it had never been enacted. We are not, however, in a position to agree with the pronouncements that may imply that the Constitution has confirmed the provisions of the Code of Civil Procedure regarding disqualifications of members of the judiciary. When the Convention conferred upon the Supreme Court, the rule-making power, as provided in section 13 of Article VIII, it did not have in mind the idea of considering the specific provision of law then existing on pleading, practice, and procedure in courts of justice, but only of repealing them as statutory provisions and turning them into judicial rules, so that the Supreme Court may alter and modify them. The conversion had been necessary, because the power to change statutory provisions belongs exclusively to the legislative department. Judicial disqualification is a matter of substantive law and, therefore, beyond the rule-making power of the Supreme Court. Otherwise, it will also be subject to legislation, as Congress is expressly empowered to legislate upon judicial rules adopted by the Supreme Court. Congress can not legislate on judicial disqualification without jeopardizing judicial independence. Judicial qualifications and disqualification are matters basically constitutional. They go to the very roots and existence of the judicial system established by our people. The present provisions of the Constitution are amply satisfactory. If the good behavior, age limit and incapacity to discharge the duties of the office therein mentioned are not satisfactory, correction can be effected only by constitutional amendment. We deem it unnecessary to elaborate now on the propositions above enunciated. The eleven grounds advanced by petitioner to assail the constitutionality of section 14 of Commonwealth Act No. 682 are all well taken, as we have already shown in our published two written opinions in Rama vs. Misa, L-263, dated February 27, and April 1, 1946. In the first one we said: Since we began to enjoy the privilege of sitting in this Court, one of the highest positions within the gift of our people, for less than a year, this is the second time we are compelled to come out to fight for judicial independence as one of the political values that should be treasured permanently, if our courts must forever be the unconquerable bulwark of the right and the privileges of the individuals and the principles of justice, liberty, and democracy. The first occasion was when we wrote our concurring opinion on September 6, 1945, in the case of Raquiza vs. Bradford, L-44. The respondent's motion, upon which the majority resolution was adopted, invokes the provisions of section 14 of Commonwealth Act No. 682, creating the People's Court, disqualifying any justice who held any office or position under the Philippine Executive Commission or under the government called Philippine Republic, during the enemy occupation, to sit and vote in any case in which the accused held any office or position under said governments or any branch, instrumentality, and/or agency thereof. We are of opinion that said section, so far as it provides fro said disqualification, is null and void, and without effect, because: (1) It is utterly wrong as a matter of principle; (2) It violates the constitution of the Philippines; and (3) It destroys the judicial independence of the Supreme Court. Whatever the reason Congress had in mind in providing for said disqualification, it is important to remember that respondents have made of record that their motion "is not inspired by any lack of confidence in the impartiality, character, and integrity of the honorable members of this Court affected by the relief sought," and that there is no basis to say the contrary. We must also bear in mind that in France, Mongibaux, the former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court under the Vichy government, was the one who tried, judged, and sentences Marshal Petain. No one can cast any doubt as to his impartiality, character and integrity No one disputed the wisdom and justice of his decision, condemning as guilty of collaboration the head of the Vichy government. Article VIII, section 6, of the Constitution, provides for he qualifications of a person who may be appointed member of the Supreme Court. Section 14 of Act 682, in effect, in the cases mentioned therein, amends the Constitution by adding a new qualification, namely, that the member had not held any office or position under the Philippine Executive Commission or the so-called Philippine Republic. Congress, according to Article XV of the Constitution, may propose amendments to it, the proposal to be approved by the people, but it cannot amend it. Article VIII, section 8, of the Constitution, provides that Congress "shall prescribe the qualifications of judges of inferior courts." We may construe the provision as also authorizing Congress to prescribe the 'disqualifications' of said judges. But the very fact that such provisions exists in the Constitution regarding judges of inferior courts, but not of the Supreme Court, must be interpreted with the effect that Congress is without power to prescribe disqualifications for said justices. Inclusio unius est exclusio alterius. Article VIII, section 9, of the Constitution, provides that the members of the Supreme Court "shall hold office during good behavior, until they reach the age of seventy years, or become incapacitated to discharge the duties of their office." But the provision is completely silent as to how and by whom and by whom said members may be deprived of their right to hold office in case they become incapacitated to discharge the duties thereof, reach the age of seventy, or failed to behave accordingly. Shall the power be exercised by the Supreme Court itself, or shall it be left to the conscience of the affected justice? Quaere. certainly, they cannot be exercised by legislation? It seems that the good behavior clause of Article VIII, section 9, must be jointly considered with Article IX, section 1, where the acts as against good behavior under Article VIII, section 9, should be considered specified. In such case, Article IX provides for the procedure for removal by impeachment. The procedure provided in Article IX cannot be substituted by legislation without violating the fundamental law of the land. With all the admiration and profound respect we entertain for Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who possibly will be rated as the greatest president of the United States of America, and, undoubtedly, as one of the highest apostles of freedom, democracy, and humanity, we must admit that he committed a great blunder when he proposed to pack the United States Supreme Court with additional new and younger members. All the believers in democratic institutions are glad that the proposal met defeat, the most crushing and resounding one suffered in Congress by President Roosevelt. The wrong about to be committed by said proposal was one by addition. The wrong committed by section 14 of Act 682 is by subtraction. Whether by addition or subtraction, the principle is essentially wrong, unjust, subversive, destructive of the principle of separation of powers. It will, ultimately, turn the Supreme Court, not as it is and should be, not as one of the dignified powers of government, but as a mere appendix of Congress, subject to the whims of the leaders of the same. With all our respect and regard for Congress, if we have to be realistic, we should not close our eyes to the logical pernicious consequences of the principle, if we sanction it, that would allow Congress to provide for disqualifications on any ground, no matter what the wisdom or nonsense of it, of Justices of the Supreme Court. If we recognize that power in Congress, it will make of the Supreme Court a mere tool in the hands of the leaders of the legislative power who may, by legislation, disqualify one or more members of the Supreme Court today, for one reason; tomorrow, upon different grounds; and the day after tomorrow, on further grounds, until the members affected are, in effect, deprived totally of their functions and office, until the Supreme Court is altogether crippled or totally abolished. We refuse absolutely to sanction or to take part in such a governmental framework where the highest tribunal of the land will not be more than a mocking shadow of judicial power. No power in government should try, directly or indirectly, to control the manner by which the Supreme Court and its members should administer justice. Providing for disqualifications by law is an attempt to control the Supreme Court and its members. Such attempt must be rejected with energy. Once the members of this Supreme Court have been appointed, their appointments have been confirmed by the Commission on Appointments, and they have taken their oath of office, the only power that can control their acts is the power of their own conscience. People and government should depend on them with implicit faith and confidence. Over their conscience will always loom, as an eternal guiding star, the object of their functions: justice, with all its overpowering moral and divine force. According to Cicero "in justice the brilliance of virtue is greater, and from her they receive their name just men" (De Offic. 1., 1, tit. de Justitia); and Saint Thomas Aquinas maintains that "justice excels all other moral virtues" and "it is the most excellent among all other virtues" (Summa Theologica, Second Part, Cuestion XVIII, Article XII.) Although the psuedo-progressives of new pattern, those intellectual renegades who spurn the wisdom of the ages, may not relish it, we have to quote from Aristotle that "justice seems to be the most excellent virtue, and that neither the afternoon star nor the morning star inspires more admiration than her" (Ethics, 1. 5. c. 1), as "the greatest virtue as necessarily those which are more useful to others, because virtue is a beneficient faculty" (Rhetor. 1, 1, c.9). After all, those who look farther in the past will see better the future. Who can pull the farther back the string of a bow, he will send the arrow farther. Robert Maynard Hutchins, President of the University of Chicago, one of the institutions which greatly contributed to the development of the atomic bomb, in the 1945 edition of his book "The High Learning in America' could not avoid invoking several times the authority of the Stagirite. The Pleiad of great physicists who are responsible for ushering of the Atomic Energy Era, the most revolutionary in the history of humanity — Becquerel, Curie, Hertz, Einstein, Bohr, Smyth, Rutherford, Meitner, Oppenheimer, and many others — themselves admitted that the ideas of Democritus and Aristotle on matter, on energy, on the elements of universe, expressed centuries before Christ, the philosopher's stone of the medieval alchemists, and the ideas of Galileo and Newton are direct progenitors and inspirers of the present concepts on matter and energy as the different expressions of the same thing and which permitted the discovery of that wonderful microcosmos where the constellations of electrons, protons, neutrons, deuterons, photons, alpha, beta, and gamma rays, and other radiant particles in play, offering to man the mastery it never had on physical nature with the harnessing of the basic forces of universe. There are thoughts and ideas bequeathed to us by great thinkers which remain fresh and young through the ages and centuries, like the flesh of the wooly mammoth, buried in Russian tundras, which today can still be eaten, although the beasts died in the pre-historic darkness of remote antiquity. Those are the thoughts and ideas insufflated with the vitality of eternal truth. They spring from the minds of the geniuses with which Nature, once in a while, blesses certain epochs, to be the intellectual leaders of mankind for all time. The ignorants and retrogrades will never understand it; but it is a fact that in the summit of his glorious career, Justice Holmes, the greatest Judge of modern times, continued reading Aristotle. To free themselves from the sorrows they feel with the surrounding market of vulgarity, where pygmys and riffraffs dominate, great minds seek enjoyment in the company of their kind. Eagles will not be happy in the society of flies and mosquitoes. That explains the calibre of the friends Rizal had in Europe. All these may sound esoteric to the unfortunate class of morons or mental degenerates. We cannot help it. Our words are addressed to persons with normal understanding. We wish to make it of record that, as a matter of fact, some of the members who disqualified themselves had some doubts on the validity of any law, passed after their appointment to this Court, which under the guise of establishing disqualifications has the effect of either temporarily removing them from office or changing the composition of the Supreme Court, when called upon to decide those issues reserved to it by the Constitution. But they chose not to inquire further into the matter, what with their opinion that under section 14 disqualification was optional with them in court, and the prima facie presumption in favor of the law's validity. We, therefore, dissent from the majority's resolution. We maintain that the affected members are duty bound to ignore section 14 of Act 682 and should proceed to continue exercising their constitutional functions in the present case. The above was written in relation to a resolution adopted by the Supreme Court with the members who decided to disqualify themselves taking part. The second opinion was written in relation with a resolution adopted by a body composed of a minority of Justices of the Supreme Court and a majority of judges designated by the President of the Philippines to sit in the Supreme Court. We stated therein: A motion was filed by petitioner impugning the organization and constitution of the Supreme Court as presently constituted for purposes of taking cognizance, trying and deciding the present case, raising specially the issue as to the validity, under the Constitution, of the designation of five judges of courts of first instance to sit as acting justices of the Supreme Court in substitution of the Chief Justice and four Justices who, upon motion of the party respondent and in compliance with the first paragraph of section 14 Act 682, creating the People's Court, inhibited themselves in this case. The motion was filed on Monday, April 1, 1946, just before the hearing of this case on the merits. After a few minutes deliberation, the majority resolved to deny the motion and, consequently, to reject the point of constitutional law raised in said motion. The question being of far-reaching importance and having been raised for the first time, we were of the opinion that it requires deep thinking and study, matured deliberation, and ample and long discussion before this Supreme Court could do full justice in disposing of so important question. For said purposes the few minutes employed in considering and deciding the question were, to our mind absolutely inadequate. A few hours would even be also inadequate. Days, with full opportunity for complete rest in the intervening nights, are imperatively needed. But the majority, overruling our position, unsupported by all the members of this court, except ourselves, thought otherwise and decided the question on a lightning-like fashion, deciding, furthermore, to verbally promulgate the resolution at the beginning of the hearing, without waiting for the resolution to be formally committed in writing as naturally must be expected from a court of record par excellence as no other can be than the highest tribunal of the land. We wanted to have an opportunity of studying further the question, of thinking more on it and, at least, for a solitary self discussion, in lieu of a deliberation with our brethren assembled in a collective body, the benefits of which we were deprived, we announced at the hearing, when the resolution was verbally promulgated, that we are reserving our vote until the resolution could be reduced to writing. Now we are ready to cast our vote with full consciousness, for the upholding of the constitutional question raised by petitioner, and in support of that vote we are writing this opinion. Our position is that the designation of the five judges of first instance to sit in this Supreme Court as acting Justices in place of the Chief Justice and four Justices who inhibited themselves is, under the Constitution, null and void; that said judges can not sit in this Supreme Court and take part in its deliberations and decision in this case without violating the Constitution; and that all actions of this court taken with the participation of said temporary Justices are and must be declared null and void and without effect. There are several grounds in support of this position. I Section 1 of Article VIII of the Constitution provides: "The Judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as may be established by law." This provision makes the Supreme Court a constitutional organism, whose existence, constitution and organization are provided in the fundamental law of the land, and said matter cannot be the subject of laws enacted by the legislative power, unless expressly so authorized by the Constitution itself. Otherwise, Congress will be in a position to change the composition and organization of the Supreme Court by actually amending the corresponding constitutional provisions, and such thing cannot be done without violating the fundamental law, as any amendment of the same to take effect must be submitted to the sanction and approval of people represented by the body of the national electorate. The provisions of section 14 of Act 682 regarding disqualification of members of the Supreme Court and for the designation of judges who may take their place in this Court have the effect of amending the Constitution. In a former dissenting opinion in this case we have already had the opportunity of expressing our opinion to the effect that said disqualification provision is null and void, being violative of the constitution. As a corollary, it is unavoidable to declare also unconstitutional the provision which authorizes the President of the Philippines to designate judges of inferior courts to sit in this Tribunal in the place of disqualified Justices, it appearing that there is nothing in the Constitution authorizing Congress or any legislative body to enact a law providing for said designation. II Section 5 of Article VIII of the Constitution provides: "The members of the Supreme Court and all judges of inferior courts shall be appointed by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments." This provision clearly limits the procedure by which positions in the Supreme Court may be filled up. Under the provision, the members of the Supreme Court must be appointed by the President of the Philippines, and the appointment must be with the consent of the Commission on Appointments. Section 5 of Article VIII of the Constitution can in no way be interpreted as authorizing a judge of an inferior court to sit in this Supreme Court, not by appointment by the President of the Philippines and with the consent of the Commission on Appointment, but by just a mere designation made by the President and without even the concurrence of the Commission on Appointments. The designation of the five judges of first instance to sit in this Supreme Court constitutes a clear and flagrant violation of the constitutional provision which requires that the members of the Supreme Court "shall be appointed by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments." The provision in the second paragraph of section 14 of Act 682, in authorizing the designation of judges of first instance to sit in this Supreme Court, in fact, grants the President an arbitrary power which the framers of the Constitution would never think of granting him. Said provisions, besides granting the President an arbitrary power, has the effect of depriving the Commission on Appointments of it Constitutional right to consent or not to consent to the appointment of the members of the Supreme Court. The framers of the Constitution considered it wise to have the appointment of members of the Supreme Court effected in such a way as will guarantee the expression of the will of the people, considering the tremendous judicial powers which the Supreme Court exercises cannot but affect vitally the well-being and happiness of all the people of the Philippines. So they granted the power of appointment to the President, who is elected at large by the whole country. But to establish further guarantees that the appointments count with the whole-hearted approval of the people, the authors of the Constitution provided that the appointments be approved by the Commission on Appointments, which is composed of one-half of the members of the Senate, including the President thereof, and of a substantial number of members of the House of Representatives. In this way, the members of the Supreme Court are appointed with the joint action of the two powers of government, more directly in contact with the people, the executive and the legislative. The designation of judges of first instance to sit in this Supreme Court is dependent only on the action of a single individual, action that is of temporary nature and which may be changes, revoked, or reversed at any time, under any circumstance, without limitation except the psychological limitations of the powers of his imagination. III Section 6 of Article VIII of the Constitution provides: "No person may be appointed member of the Supreme Court unless he has been five years a citizen of the Philippines." On the other side, section 8 of Article VIII of the Constitution provides that: "Congress shall prescribe the qualifications of judges of inferior courts, but no person may be appointed judge of any such courts unless he is a citizen of the Philippines." As a member of the Constitutional Convention and of the Committee on Style thereof which drafted the final text of the Constitution, we are in a position to state categorically that the Constitutional Convention considered it a vital guarantee that no member of the Supreme Court could be appointed "unless he has been five years a citizen of the Philippines", because we would not trust the important functions of this Supreme Court in the hands of men who have not enough time to learn, to think, and to feel as a born Filipino citizen should. We consider this condition necessary and vital with regards to the highest tribunal of the land, whose decision shall usually be the last word in the administration of justice. We did not deem it necessary to require the same condition with respect to judges of court inferior to the Supreme Court, so we provided that it was not enough that the appointee be "a citizen of the Philippines", no matter whether he be a one-year or one-day Filipino citizen. Therefor, a one-day Filipino citizen may become a judge of first instance. If we have to abide by the provision of Act 682 herein in question, such one-day Filipino citizen may be designated by the President to sit in the Supreme Court. That is while the Constitution requires that a member of the Supreme Court must be, at least, "five years a citizen of the Philippines", Commonwealth Act 682 authorizes to sit in this Supreme Court a judge who is just one-day or a one-year Filipino citizen. The violation of the Constitution cannot be more patent and flagrant. IV Section 6 of Article VIII of the Constitution requires that a person to be appointed a member of the Supreme Court, must be "at least 40 years of age." No such age requirement is provided in section 8 Article VIII of the Constitution with regards to judges of inferior courts. Therefore, a citizen who is 30 years or 20 years of age may be appointed as judge of first instance. A judge of first instance of 30 or 20 years, under the provision in question of Commonwealth Act 682, may be designated by the President to sit in this Supreme Court. It is necessary that we would explain the reasons of the Constitutional Convention in requiring that members of this Supreme Court must be at least 40 years of age, as said reasons are self-evident. There is no reasoning that can avoid recognizing the fact that the provision of Commonwealth Act 682 in authorizing, in fact, that judge of 30 or 20 years of age may sit as acting Justice of the Supreme Court is an evident violation of Section 6 of Article VIII of the Constitution. V Section 6 of Article VIII of the Constitution provides that no person may be appointed member of the Supreme Court unless he "has for ten years or more been a judge of a court of record or engaged in the practice of law in the Philippines." Section 8 of Article VIII of the Constitution also requires that judges of inferior courts should have been "admitted to the practice of law in the Philippines." Therefore, a lawyer who has just been authorized to practice law may immediately be appointed a judge of first instance. Such a judge, under Act 682, may be designated to sit as a member of the Supreme Court. This is another clear violation of the Constitution when it provides in section 6 of Article VIII that no person may be appointed as member of the Supreme Court unless "he has for ten years or more been a judge of a court of record or engaged in the practice of law in the Philippines." VI Section 7 Article VIII of the Constitution provides: "No judge appointed to a particular district shall be designated or transferred to another district without the approval of the Supreme Court. The Congress shall be law determine the residence of judges of inferior courts." If a municipal judge of an inferior court including courts of first instance and municipal and justice of the peace courts cannot be transferred or designated to another district without the approval of the Supreme Court, how can he be transferred to a higher court, such as the Supreme Court, without the approval of the latter? If to transfer a judge of a municipal court to another municipal court the Constitution requires the approval of the Supreme Court, although the transfer is to a court of the same category as the one to which the judge has been appointed, and so is the case of a judge of first instance, it is so because the Constitution seeks to maintain the stability of judges in their respective districts, and that stability cannot be disturbed but by following the constitutional procedure. Under the maxim of inclusio unius est exclusion alterius, a judge of an cannot be transferred but only to other district of the same category, provided the transfer is approved by the Supreme Court. The designation of judges of first instance to sit in this Supreme Court as provided in section 14 of Act 682 is, in effect, a transfer, and being a transfer not expressly authorized by the Constitution cannot be effected without violating the Constitution. VII So far we have dealt with the qualifications of judges of inferior courts as required by the Constitution, and it may be argued that the provisions of the Constitution do not preclude the legislative power from requiring, besides the minimum qualifications fixed by the Constitution, further qualifications in such a way that no person may be appointed as judge of an inferior court unless he possesses the same qualifications required by the Constitution for a person to be appointed as a member of the Supreme Court. As can be seen, the argument is based on a legal situation which may be set up by the legislative power, but may not also happen in actual practice. This very fact is enough basis for dismissing the argument. But if this were not enough, we may point out that the situation at present shows the innate weakness of the argument, as the law at present does not require that a person to be appointed to a position in any inferior court should have the same qualifications required by the Constitution for a person to be appointed as a member of the Supreme Court. The qualifications of judges of first instance, the next following in category of Justices of the Supreme Court, are provided for in section 149 of the Administrative Code, which reads as follows: "SEC. 149. Qualifications. — No person shall be appointed judge of first instance or auxiliary judge unless he has practiced law in the Philippine Islands or in the United States for a period of not less than five years or has held during alike period, within the Philippine Islands or within the United States, an office requiring a lawyer's diploma as an indispensable requisite; and before assuming such judicial office he shall qualify as member of the bar of the Supreme Court of the Philippine Islands if he has not already done so." As it can be seen, none of the three essential qualifications specifically required by the Constitution for a person to be appointed as a member of the Supreme Court is required for a person to be appointed as judge of first instance. Consequently, section 14 of Act 682 in undeniably unconstitutional, not only because it disqualifies and eliminates five members of this Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice, such disqualifications being violative of the Constitution, as we have shown in our dissenting opinion in this same case dated February 27, 1946, but because in its second paragraph it authorizes the designation of judges of inferior courts to site temporarily as Justices of the Supreme Court, although said judges are not required to possess the qualifications required of a member of the Supreme Court. Said paragraph of section 14 of Act 682 reads as follows: "If, on account of such disqualification, or because of any grounds of disqualification of Judges in Rule 126, section 1 of the Rules of Court, or on account of illness, absence or temporary disability the requisite number of Justices necessary to constitute a quorum or to render judgment in any case is not present, the President may designate such number of Judges of First Instance, Judges-at-large of First Instance, or Cadastral Judges, having none of the disqualifications set forth in said section one hereof, as may be necessary to sit temporarily as Justices of said Justices of said Court, in order to form a quorum or until a judgment in said case is reached." It can be alleged, as a matter of fact, that the five judges designated by the President of the Philippines to sit as temporary Justices of the Supreme Court in substitution of the Chief Justice and four Justices who inhibited themselves from taking part in the consideration of this case, possess each and everyone of them all the minimum qualifications required by the Constitution of a person who could be appointed as Justice of the Supreme Court.. The fact does not destroy the theory that the second paragraph of section 14 of Act 682 authorizes, in utter violation of the Constitution, the designation of judges not possessing all or any of the three minimum constitutional qualifications as Justices of the Supreme Court to sit and act as such Justices of the Supreme Court. VIII To give effectiveness to section 14 of Act 682 is to sanction a principle radically wrong and highly subversive. P.338-368. (THIRTY MORE PAGES TO FOLLOW). The Lawphil Project - Arellano Law Foundation